Enhanced solid state battery cell

ABSTRACT

An enhanced solid state battery cell is disclosed. The battery cell can include a first electrode, a second electrode, and a solid state electrolyte layer interposed between the first electrode and the second electrode. The battery cell can further include a resistive layer interposed between the first electrode and the second electrode. The resistive layer can be electrically conductive in order to regulate an internal current flow within the battery cell. The internal current flow can result from an internal short circuit formed between the first electrode and the second electrode. The internal short circuit can be formed from the solid state electrolyte layer being penetrated by metal dendrites formed at the first electrode and/or the second electrode.

RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No.62/343,683 entitled MULTI-LAYERED SOLID STATE ELECTROLYTE FILM FORRECHARGEABLE BATTERIES AND ITS CORRESPONDING MANUFACTURING METHODS andfiled on May 31, 2016, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The subject matter described herein relates generally to batterytechnology and more specifically to battery electrolytes.

BACKGROUND

Electrolytes are highly conductive substances that enable the movementof electrically charged ions. For example, electrolytes in a battery canprovide a pathway for the transfer of charged particles and/or ionsbetween the anode and the cathode of the battery.

SUMMARY

Systems, methods, and articles of manufacture, including batteries andbattery components, are provided. In some implementations of the currentsubject matter, there is provided a battery cell. The battery cell caninclude a first electrode, a second electrode, and a solid stateelectrolyte layer interposed between the first electrode and the secondelectrode. The battery cell can further include a resistive layerinterposed between the first electrode and the second electrode. Theresistive layer can be electrically conductive in order to regulate aninternal current flow within the battery cell. The internal current flowcan result from an internal short circuit formed between the firstelectrode and the second electrode. The internal short circuit can beformed from the solid state electrolyte layer being penetrated by metaldendrites formed at the first electrode and/or the second electrode.

In some variations, one or more features disclosed herein including thefollowing features can optionally be included in any feasiblecombination. The resistive layer can further be ionically conductive toenable a transfer of ions between the first electrode and the secondelectrode.

In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or moreelectrically conductive materials. The one or more electricallyconductive materials can include carbon black, carbon nano tubes,graphene, conductive polymers, and/or conductive inorganic compounds. Anamperage of the internal current flow can be proportional to a quantityof the one or more electrically conductive material.

In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or moreionically conductive materials. The one or more ionically conductivematerials can include a polymer electrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte,and/or a solid state electrolyte. A power of the battery cell can bedirectly proportional to a quantity of the one or more ionicallyconductive material.

In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or more polymerbinders. The one or more polymer binders can include a polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF), a styrene-butadiene (SBR), a carboxymethyl cellulose(CMC), a polyimide, a polyamide, and/or a polyethylene.

In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or morenano-particle fillers. The one or more nano-particle fillers can includea calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), a silicon titanium oxide (SiTiO₃), analuminum oxide (Al₂O₃), and/or a fumed silica.

In some variations, the resistive layer can include one or moreelectrochemically active compounds. The one or more electrochemicallyactive compounds can include lithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithium ironfluorine oxide (LiFeFO₂), iron fluoride (FeF_(x)/C), and/or lithiumnickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC).

In some variations, the resistive layer can be interposed between thesolid state electrolyte layer and one of the first electrode and thesecond electrode. The battery cell can further include a first polymerelectrolyte layer. The first polymer electrolyte layer can be interposedbetween the first electrode and the solid state electrolyte layer. Thefirst polymer electrolyte layer can be configured to reduce a contactimpedance between the first electrode and the solid state electrolytelayer. The battery cell can further include a second polymer electrolytelayer. The second polymer electrolyte layer can be interposed betweenthe resistive layer and the second electrode. The battery cell canfurther include a base film layer. The solid state electrolyte layer canbe interposed between the first polymer electrolyte layer and the basefilm layer. The first polymer electrolyte layer and the base film layercan be configured to prevent a decomposition of the solid stateelectrolyte layer during a production and/or an operation of the batterycell.

In some variations, the battery cell can be a metal battery. The metalbattery can be a lithium (Li) battery, a sodium (Na) battery, and/or apotassium (K) battery. The solid state electrolyte layer can be formedby vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition.

The details of one or more variations of the subject matter describedherein are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the descriptionbelow. Other features and advantages of the subject matter describedherein will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from theclaims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, show certain aspects of the subject matterdisclosed herein and, together with the description, help explain someof the principles associated with the disclosed implementations. In thedrawings,

FIG. 1A depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cellconsistent with implementations of the current subject matter;

FIG. 1B depicts a schematic diagram illustrating an internal shortcircuit consistent with implementations of the current subject matter;

FIG. 2A depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cellconsistent with implementations of the current subject matter;

FIG. 2B depicts a schematic diagram illustrating an internal shortcircuit consistent with implementations of the current subject matter;

FIG. 3 depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cellconsistent with implementations of the current subject matter;

FIG. 4 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing abattery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter;

FIG. 5 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing abattery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter;

FIG. 6 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing abattery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter; and

FIG. 7 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process for manufacturing abattery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter.

When practical, similar reference numbers denote similar structures,features, or elements.

DESCRIPTION

Metal batteries, such as lithium (Li) batteries, are susceptible tointernal shorts, which can lead to hazardous thermal runaway andcombustion. For example, the charging and discharging of a metal batterycan give rise to metal dendrites. These metal dendrites can penetratethe porous separator between the anode and the cathode of the metalbattery, thereby causing an internal short. Solid state electrolytes(SSEs) are not porous and are thought to be less prone to beingpenetrated by metal dendrites. Nevertheless, metal dendrites may stillpenetrate the structural defects, such as pinholes and cracks, that areinevitably present in solid state electrolytes. Thus, a metal batteryformed with solid state electrolytes may still succumb to an internalshort, particularly after the metal battery is subjected to a largenumber of charge and discharge cycles. As such, in some implementationsof the current subject matter, a battery cell having a solid stateelectrolyte may further include an electrical barrier against internalshorts. For example, this enhanced solid state battery cell can includea resistive layer configured to regulate internal current flow in theevent of an internal short caused by a breach of the solid stateelectrolyte.

FIG. 1 depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell 100consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter.Referring to FIG. 1A, the battery cell 100 can include a solid stateelectrolyte layer 110, a polymer electrolyte layer 120, a base filmlayer 130, a first electrode 140A, and a second electrode 140B. In someimplementations of the current subject matter, the first electrode 140Acan be the negative electrode (e.g., anode) of the battery cell 100.Meanwhile, the second electrode 140B can be the positive electrode(e.g., cathode) of the battery cell 100. However, it should beappreciated that the battery cell 100 can also be configured with anopposite electrical polarity.

The solid state electrolyte layer 110 can be interposed between thepolymer electrolyte layer 120 and the base film layer 130. Furthermore,as shown in FIG. 1A, the polymer electrolyte layer 120 can be interposedbetween the solid state electrolyte layer 110 and the first electrode140A while the base film layer 130 can be interposed between the solidstate electrolyte layer 110 and the second electrode 140B. It should beappreciated that the solid state electrolyte layer 110 may be formedfrom solid state electrolytes that tend to be fragile and highlyreactive. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer 110 candecompose and/or breakdown during production of the battery cell 100 dueto reaction with common environmental elements such as water and/oroxygen. The solid state electrolyte layer 110 can also decompose and/orbreakdown during operation of the battery cell 100 by reacting with thefirst electrode 140A and the second electrode 140B of the battery cell100 upon contact. Thus, in some implementations of the current subjectmatter, the polymer electrolyte layer 120 and the base film layer 130can be configured to isolate the solid state electrolyte layer 110 fromenvironmental elements as well as both the first electrode 140A and thesecond electrode 140B, thereby preventing a decomposition and/orbreakdown of the solid state electrolyte layer 110 during both theproduction and operation of the battery cell 100. Furthermore, thepolymer electrolyte layer 120 and/or the base film layer 130 can alsomitigate the high contact impedance between the solid state electrolytelayer 110 and the first electrode 140A and/or between the first solidstate electrolyte layer 110 and the second electrode 140B.

As noted earlier, the solid state electrolyte layer 110 can includephysical defects (e.g., pinholes, cracks) that render the solid stateelectrolyte layer 110 susceptible to being penetrated by metaldendrites, especially after the battery cell 100 is subjected to a largenumber of charge and discharge cycles. For example, metal dendritesforming on the first electrode 140A and/or the second electrode 140B canpenetrate the solid state electrolyte layer 110, the polymer electrolytelayer 120, and the base film layer 130 to form an internal short circuit160 between the first electrode 140A and the second electrode 140B. FIG.1B depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the internal short circuit160 consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter.This internal short circuit 160 provides an alternative path that isless resistive than a path through an electric load 150 of the batterycell 170. Thus, the bulk of the current 170 is diverted from theelectric load 150 to the internal short circuit 160. The resulting shortcircuit current 165 flowing through the battery cell 100 (e.g., from thesecond electrode 140B to the first electrode 140A) can be much greaterthan the current 170 still flowing through the electric load 150. Thisshort circuit current 165 can generate a large quantity of heat (e.g.,thermal runaway) within the battery cell 100 that can lead to combustionof the battery cell 100. No existing mechanisms are available tomitigate the effects of the internal short circuit 160 caused by thepenetration of the solid state electrolyte layer 110.

FIG. 2A depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell 200consistent with implementations of the current subject matter. Referringto FIG. 2A, the battery cell 200 can include a solid state electrolytelayer 210, a polymer electrolyte layer 220, a base film layer 230, aresistive layer 240, a first electrode 250A, and a second electrode250B. In some implementations of the current subject matter, the firstelectrode 250A can be the negative electrode (e.g., anode) of thebattery cell 200. Meanwhile, the second electrode 250B can be thepositive electrode (e.g., cathode) of the battery cell 200.

The solid state electrolyte layer 210 can be interposed between thepolymer electrolyte layer 220 and the base film layer 230 and/or theresistive layer 240. For example, as shown in FIG. 2A, the solid stateelectrolyte layer 210 can be interposed between the polymer electrolytelayer 220 and the base film layer 230 while the polymer electrolytelayer 220 is interposed between the first electrode 250A and the solidstate electrolyte layer 210. Furthermore, the polymer electrolyte layer220 can be interposed between the solid state electrolyte layer 210 andthe first electrode 250A. Meanwhile the base film layer 230 and/or theresistive layer 240 can be interposed between the solid stateelectrolyte layer 210 and the second electrode 250B. However, it shouldbe appreciated that the base film layer 230 can be optional. In theabsence of the base film layer 230, the solid state electrolyte layer210 can also be interposed directly between the polymer electrolytelayer 220 and the resistive layer 240. Furthermore, the positions of thevarious layers of the battery cell 200 shown in FIG. 2A areinterchangeable. For example, the respective positions of the polymerelectrolyte layer 220 and the base film layer 230 can be swapped suchthat the base film layer 230 is interposed between the first electrode250A and the solid state electrolyte layer 210 instead of the polymerelectrolyte layer 220. Alternately and/or additionally, the respectivepositions of the base film layer 230 and the resistive layer 240 can beswapped such that the base film layer 230 is interposed between theresistive layer 240 and the second electrode 250B instead of theresistive layer 240 being interposed between the base layer 230 and thesecond electrode 250B.

It should be appreciated that the solid state electrolyte layer 210 maybe formed from solid state electrolytes that tend to be fragile andhighly reactive. For example, the solid state electrolyte layer 210 candecompose and/or breakdown during production of the battery cell 200 dueto reaction with common environmental elements such as water and/oroxygen. The solid state electrolyte layer 210 can also decompose and/orbreakdown during operation of the battery cell 200 by reacting with thefirst electrode 250A and the second electrode 250B of the battery cell200 upon contact. Thus, in some implementations of the current subjectmatter, the polymer electrolyte layer 220, the base film layer 230,and/or the resistive layer 240 can be configured to isolate the solidstate electrolyte layer 210 from environmental elements as well as boththe first electrode 250A and the second electrode 250B, therebypreventing a decomposition and/or breakdown of the solid stateelectrolyte layer 210 during both the production and operation of thebattery cell 200. Furthermore, the polymer electrolyte layer 220, thebase film layer 230, and/or the resistive layer 240 can also mitigatethe high contact impedance between the solid state electrolyte layer 210and the electrode 250A and/or between the first solid state electrolytelayer 210 and the second electrode 250B.

As noted earlier, the solid state electrolyte layer 210 can includephysical defects (e.g., pinholes, cracks) that render the solid stateelectrolyte layer 210 susceptible to being penetrated by metaldendrites, especially after the battery cell 200 is subjected to a largenumber of charge and discharge cycles. For example, metal dendritesforming on the first electrode 250A and/or the second electrode 250B canpenetrate the solid state electrolyte layer 210, the polymer electrolytelayer 220, the base film layer 230, and the resistive layer 240 to forman internal short circuit 270 between the first electrode 250A and thesecond electrode 250B.

FIG. 2B depicts a schematic diagram illustrating the internal shortcircuit 270 consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter. According to some implementations of the current subject matter,the resistive layer 240 can be configured to regulate a short circuitcurrent 275 between the second electrode 250B and the first electrode250A, in the event of a breach of the solid state electrolyte layer 210and the formation of the internal short circuit 20. The resistive layer240 can be ionically conductive, electrically conductive, and/orelectrochemically active. The short circuit current 275 that resultsfrom the internal short circuit 270 within the battery cell 200 can becontrolled via the electrical conductivity and/or electrochemicalactivity of the resistive layer 240. As shown in FIG. 2B, the resistivelayer 240 can provide an electric resistance 292. A rate (e.g.,amperage) of the short circuit current 275 can be dependent upon theelectric resistance 292, which may be directly proportional to aquantity of electrically conductive material and/or electrochemicallyactive material in the resistive layer 240. Meanwhile, the resistivelayer 240 will not interfere with the normal operation of the batterycell 200 because the resistive layer 240 is ionically conductive and/orelectrochemically active, and will therefore not impede the transfer ofcharged particles and/or ions between the first electrode 250A and thesecond electrode 250B. However, it should be appreciated that theresistive layer 240 can impose some ionic resistance 294. Thus, thepower of the battery cell 200 can be dependent upon the ionicconductivity and/or the electrochemical activity of the resistive layer240. For instance, the power of the battery cell 200 can be directlyproportional to a quantity of ionically conductive material and/orelectrochemically active in the resistive layer 240.

In some implementations of the current subject matter, the resistivelayer 240 can be formed from a polymer binder such as, for example,polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), styrene-butadiene (SBR), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), polyimide, polyamide, polyethylene, and/or the like.The resistive layer 240 can include one or more electrically conductiveadditives such as, for example, carbon black, carbon nano tubes,graphene, a conductive polymer, a conductive inorganic compound, and/orthe like. The resistive layer 240 can further include one or moreionically conductive additives such as, for example, a polymerelectrolyte, a polymer gel electrolyte, a solid state electrolyte,and/or the like. Alternately and/or additionally, the resistive layer240 can include nano-particle fillers such as, for example, calciumcarbonate (CaCO₃), silicon titanium oxide (SiTiO₃), aluminum oxide(Al₂O₃), fumed silica, and/or the like. The resistive layer 240 can alsobe formed from one or more electrochemically active materials (e.g.,lithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithium iron fluorine oxide (LiFeFO₂),lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), iron fluoride (FeF_(x)/C))and/or compounds having a negative thermal expansion coefficient. Itshould be appreciated that the resistive layer 240 can have a thicknessbetween 0.1 to 30 microns (μm) or preferably between 1 to 10 microns.Furthermore, heat generated from electrochemical activity within theresistive layer 240 can provide an indication of the presence of theinternal short circuit 270 and/or trigger one or more safety mechanisms.

It should be appreciated that the battery cell 200 can be any type ofmetal battery including, for example, a lithium (Li) battery, a sodium(Na) battery, a potassium (K) battery, and/or the like. The firstelectrode 240A and/or the second electrode 240B of the battery cell 200can be formed from any material. For instance, the positive secondelectrode 240B can be formed from lithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithiumiron fluorine oxide (LiFeFO₂), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide(NMC), and/or the like. The solid state electrolyte layer 210 can beformed from one or more type of solid state electrolytes including, forexample, sulfide-based solid state electrolytes (e.g., Li₂S—SiS₂—P₂S₅,Li₇P₃S₁₁, Li_(4.34)Ge_(0.73)Ga_(0.24)S₄), garnet-type lithiumion-conducting oxides (e.g., Li_(5+x)La₃(Zr_(x), A_(2−x))O₁₂ where1.4<x<2), ceramic ion conductors (e.g., LISICON) containing the framework structure SiO₄, PO₄, and ZnO₄, and/or the like. Meanwhile, the basefilm layer 230 can be formed from any combinations of one or more solidstate electrolytes, silicon oxides, alumina oxides, lithium salts,organic binders, inorganic binders, and/or the like. The base film layer230 can be a separator or any combination of separators including, forexample, a polyethylene separator (e.g., Asahi® D420), a tri-layerpolyolefin separator (e.g., Celgard® 2300), a fiber separator, anon-woven fabric separator, a glass fiber separator, a ceramicseparator, and/or the like.

In some implementations of the current subject matter, the polymerelectrolyte layer 220 can be formed a polymers and/or a polymercomposite. For example, the polymer electrolyte layer 220 can be formedfrom a crosslinked polymer (e.g., containing crosslinking agents such aspolyethylene oxide, poly-(bis((methoxyethoxy)ethoxy)phosphazene) (MEEP),single ionic conductor (e.g., lithium (Li) replaced Nafion®), polyhedraloligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC),methacrylate, and/or the like), a non-crosslinked polymer, a stiffpolymer (e.g., polyamide imide (PAI)), a block polymer, a composite ofdifferent polymers, and/or the like. Alternately and/or additionally,the protective layer 120 may be formed from a composite of one or morepolymers and at least one additive including, for example, conductiveand/or nonconductive ceramic particles, lithium salt particles (e.g.,lithium fluoroborate (LiBF₄ and/or LiPF₆), lithium nitrate (LiNO₃),lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, lithiumbis(perfluoroethanesulfonyl)imide), lithium metal stabilizers (e.g.,vinyl carbonate), ether solvents, and/or the like.

FIG. 3 depicts a schematic diagram illustrating a battery cell 300consistent with some implementations of the current subject matter.Referring to FIG. 3, the battery cell 300 can include a first electrode350A, a second electrode 350B, a solid state electrolyte layer 310, abase film layer 330, and a resistive layer 340. The first electrode 350Acan be the negative electrode (e.g., anode) of the battery cell 300while the second electrode 350B can be the positive electrode (e.g.,cathode) of the battery cell 300. However, it should be appreciated thatthe battery cell 300 can also be configured with an opposite electricalpolarity.

In some implementations of the current subject matter, the battery cell300 can include more than one polymer electrolyte layers configured tomitigate the high contact impedance with respect to the first electrode350A and/or the second electrode 350B. For example, the battery cell 300can include a first polymer electrolyte layer 320A that is interposedbetween the first electrode 350A and the solid state electrolyte layer310. The battery cell 300 can also include a second polymer electrolytelayer 320B that is interposed between the second electrode 350B and theresistive layer 340. It should be appreciated that one or both of thefirst polymer electrolyte 320A and the second polymer electrolyte 320Bmay be optional.

In some implementations of the current subject matter, the resistivelayer 340 can be configured to regulate a short circuit current flowingthrough the battery cell 300 in the event that metal dendrites formed atthe first electrode 350A and/or the second electrode 350B penetrates thefirst polymer electrolyte layer 320A, the second polymer electrolytelayer 320B, the solid state electrolyte layer 310, and the base filmlayer 330 to form an internal short circuit within the battery cell 300.The resistive layer 340 can be formed from one or more materials thatare ionically conductive, electrically conductive, and/orelectrochemically active. As such, the short circuit current resultingfrom the internal short circuit within the battery cell 300 can becontrolled by the electrically conductive and/or electrochemicallyactive material within the resistive layer 340. Meanwhile, the resistivelayer 340 will not interfere with the normal operation of the batterycell 300 because the resistive layer 340 is ionically conductive and/orelectrochemically active, and will therefore not impede the transfer ofcharged particles and/or ions between the first electrode 350A and thesecond electrode 350B. However, it should be appreciated that theresistive layer 340 can impose some ionic resistance. Therefore, thepower of the battery cell 300 can be dependent upon the ionicconductivity of the resistive layer 340 including, for example, theionically conductive and/or electrochemically active material within theresistive layer 340.

FIG. 4 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process 400 for manufacturinga battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter. Referring to FIGS. 1A-B and 4, the process 400 can be performedto manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell100.

At 402, a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thesolid state electrolyte layer 110 of the battery cell 100 can be formed,for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In someimplementations of the subject matter, forming the solid stateelectrolyte layer 110 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solutionfollowed by 20 grams of Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO). The resulting slurry can becoated onto the base film layer 130. The base film layer 130 can be aseparator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, anautomatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter perminute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automaticcoating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a secondheating zone set to 80° C.

At 404, a polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thepolymer electrolyte layer 120 of the battery cell 100 can be formed. Insome implementations of the current subject matter, forming the polymerelectrolyte layer 120 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Thesolution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer 110 formedat operation 402. For instance, the coating can be performed using anautomatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating canfurther be dried using the automatic coating machine with a firstheating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. Itshould be appreciated that the resulting polymer electrolyte layer 120will interface directly with the negative first electrode 140A (e.g.,anode) of the battery cell 100.

At 406, a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the secondelectrode 140B of the battery cell 100 can be formed. In someimplementations of the current subject matter, forming the secondelectrode 140B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP).Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture andmixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowableslurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams ofLiNi_(0.5)Mn_(0.3)Co_(0.2)O₂ (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. AdditionalN-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of theslurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layerof aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. The coating ofslurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with afirst heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone setto approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting theslurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in theslurry. The final dried second electrode 140B can have a loading ofapproximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm²). Thesecond electrode 140B can further be compressed to a thickness ofapproximately 117 microns.

At 408, a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell100 can be formed. In some implementations of the current subjectmatter, forming the battery cell 100 can include using an electrode tabto punch out the pieces forming the first electrode 140A and/or thesecond electrode 140B. The second electrode 140B (e.g., positiveelectrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the firstelectrode 140A and the second electrode 140B can be laminated, in a dryroom, with the solid state electrolyte layer 110 interposed between thefirst electrode 140A, the polymer electrolyte layer 120, the base filmlayer 130, and the second electrode 140B. It should be appreciated thatin the resulting jelly-flat, the polymer electrolyte layer 120 willdirectly interface with the first electrode 140A while the base filmlayer 130 will interface directly with the second electrode 140B. Thisjelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum (Al) composite bag, which issubsequently filled with a limited quantity of a liquid electrolyte suchas, for example, a LiPF₆ based organic carbonate electrolyte. Thealuminum composite bag can be sealed at 190° C. to form the battery cell100. The battery cell 100 can be aged at 45° C. for 5 hours before beingsubject to an initial charge and discharge cycle. For instance, thesealed battery cell 100 can be first charged to 4.2V at a C/20 rate for5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5 hours before the batterycell 100 is rested for 20 minutes. The rested battery cell 100 cansubsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate. In addition, thebattery cell 100 can be punctured, while under vacuum, to release anygases before the battery cell 100 is resealed. At this point, thebattery cell 100 is ready for operation and/or evaluation.

FIG. 5 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process 500 for manufacturinga battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter. Referring to FIGS. 2A-B and 5, the process 500 can be performedto manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell200.

At 502, a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thesolid state electrolyte layer 210 of the battery cell 200 can be formed,for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In someimplementations of the subject matter, forming the solid stateelectrolyte layer 110 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solutionfollowed by 20 grams of Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO). The resulting slurry can becoated onto the base film layer 230. The base film layer 230 can be aseparator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, anautomatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter perminute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automaticcoating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a secondheating zone set to 80° C.

At 504, a resistive layer can be formed on top of a base film. Forexample, the resistive layer 240 can be formed on top of the base filmlayer 230. In some implementations of the current subject matter,forming the resistive layer 240 can include dissolving 10 grams ofpolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) LBG-1 into 100 grams of acetone and 20grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 0.5 grams of carbonblack can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500revolutions per minute. A flowable slurry can be formed by adding 1grams of a lithium salt (e.g., lithium imide) and mixing for 30 minutesat 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) maybe added to adjust the viscosity of the flowable slurry. This resultingslurry can be coated, using an automatic coating machine, onto one sideof the base film layer 230 (e.g., Celgard® 2300) with the solid stateelectrolyte layer 210 being disposed on the opposite side of the basefilm layer 230. The automatic coating machine can further be used to drythe slurry with a first heat zone set to approximately 60° C. and asecond heat zone set to approximately 80° C. It should be appreciatedthat the slurry is subjected to heat in order to evaporate off theacetone and the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final driedresistive layer 240 can have a loading of approximately 2 milligrams persquare centimeter.

At 506, a polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thepolymer electrolyte layer 220 of the battery cell 200 can be formed. Insome implementations of the current subject matter, forming the polymerelectrolyte layer 220 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Thesolution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer 210 formedat operation 502. For instance, the coating can be performed using anautomatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating canfurther be dried using the automatic coating machine with a firstheating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. Itshould be appreciated that the resulting polymer electrolyte layer 220will interface directly with the negative first electrode 250A (e.g.,anode) of the battery cell 200.

At 508, a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the secondelectrode 250B of the battery cell 200 can be formed. In someimplementations of the current subject matter, forming the secondelectrode 250B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP).Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture andmixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowableslurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams ofLiNi_(0.5)Mn_(0.3)Co_(0.2)O₂ (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. AdditionalN-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of theslurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layerof aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. This coating ofslurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with afirst heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone setto approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting theslurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in theslurry. The final dried second electrode 250B can have a loading ofapproximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm²). Thesecond electrode 250B can further be compressed to a thickness ofapproximately 117 microns.

At 510, a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell200 can be formed. In some implementations of the current subjectmatter, forming the battery cell 200 can include using an electrode tabto punch out the pieces forming the first electrode 250A and/or thesecond electrode 250B. The second electrode 250B (e.g., positiveelectrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the firstelectrode 250A and the second electrode 250B can be laminated, in a dryroom, with the solid state electrolyte layer 210 interposed between thefirst electrode 250A, the polymer electrolyte layer 220, the base filmlayer 230, the resistive layer 240, and the second electrode 250B. Itshould be appreciated that in the resulting jelly-flat, the polymerelectrolyte layer 220 will directly interface with the first electrode250A while the resistive layer 240 will interface directly with thesecond electrode 250B. This jelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum(Al) composite bag, which is subsequently filled with a limited quantityof a liquid electrolyte such as, for example, a LiPF₆ based organiccarbonate electrolyte. The aluminum composite bag can be sealed at 190°C. to form the battery cell 200. The battery cell 200 can be aged at 45°C. for 5 hours before being subject to an initial charge and dischargecycle. For instance, the sealed battery cell 200 can be first charged to4.2V at a C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5hours before the battery cell 200 is rested for 20 minutes. The restedbattery cell 200 can subsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate.In addition, the battery cell 200 can be punctured, while under vacuum,to release any gases before the battery cell 200 is resealed. At thispoint, the battery cell 200 is ready for operation and/or evaluation.

FIG. 6 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process 600 for manufacturinga battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter. Referring to FIGS. 2A-B and 6, the process 600 can be performedto manufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell200.

At 602, a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thesolid state electrolyte layer 210 of the battery cell 200 can be formed,for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In someimplementations of the subject matter, forming the solid stateelectrolyte layer 110 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solutionfollowed by 20 grams of Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO). The resulting slurry can becoated onto the base film layer 230. The base film layer 230 can be aseparator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, anautomatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter perminute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automaticcoating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a secondheating zone set to 80° C.

At 604, a polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thepolymer electrolyte layer 220 of the battery cell 200 can be formed. Insome implementations of the current subject matter, forming the polymerelectrolyte layer 220 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 50 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Thesolution can be coated onto the solid state electrolyte layer 210 formedat operation 502. For instance, the coating can be performed using anautomatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. The coating canfurther be dried using the automatic coating machine with a firstheating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. Itshould be appreciated that the resulting polymer electrolyte layer 220will interface directly with the negative first electrode 250A (e.g.,anode) of the battery cell 200.

At 606, a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the secondelectrode 250B of the battery cell 200 can be formed. In someimplementations of the current subject matter, forming the secondelectrode 250B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP).Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture andmixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowableslurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams ofLiNi_(0.5)Mn_(0.3)Co_(0.2)O₂ (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. AdditionalN-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of theslurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layerof aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. This coating ofslurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with afirst heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone setto approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting theslurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in theslurry. The final dried second electrode 250B can have a loading ofapproximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm²). Thesecond electrode 250B can further be compressed to a thickness ofapproximately 117 microns.

At 608, a resistive layer can be formed on top of the positiveelectrode. For example, the resistive layer 240 can be formed on top ofthe positive second electrode 250B instead of the base film layer 230 asin process 500. In some implementations of the current subject matter,forming the resistive layer 240 can include dissolving 10 grams ofpolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) LBG-1 into 100 grams of acetone and 20grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 0.5 grams of carbonblack can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500revolutions per minute. A flowable slurry can be formed by adding 1grams of a lithium salt (e.g., lithium imide) and mixing for 30 minutesat 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) maybe added to adjust the viscosity of the flowable slurry. This resultingslurry can be coated, using an automatic coating machine, onto one sideof the second electrode 250B (e.g., Celgard® 2300) formed at operation606. The automatic coating machine can further be used to dry thiscoating of slurry with a first heat zone set to approximately 60° C. anda second heat zone set to approximately 80° C. It should be appreciatedthat the slurry is subjected to heat in order to evaporate off theacetone and the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. The final driedresistive layer 240 can have a loading of approximately 2 milligrams persquare centimeter.

At 610, a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell200 can be formed. In some implementations of the current subjectmatter, forming the battery cell 200 can include using an electrode tabto punch out the pieces forming the first electrode 250A and/or thesecond electrode 250B. The second electrode 250B (e.g., positiveelectrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the firstelectrode 250A and the second electrode 250B can be laminated, in a dryroom, with the solid state electrolyte layer 210 interposed between thefirst electrode 250A, the polymer electrolyte layer 220, the base filmlayer 230, the resistive layer 240, and the second electrode 240B. Itshould be appreciated that in the resulting jelly-flat, the polymerelectrolyte layer 220 will directly interface with the first electrode250A while the resistive layer 240 will interface directly with thesecond electrode 250B. This jelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum(Al) composite bag, which is subsequently filled with a limited quantityof a liquid electrolyte such as, for example, a LiPF₆ based organiccarbonate electrolyte. The aluminum composite bag can be sealed at 190°C. to form the battery cell 200. The battery cell 200 can be aged at 45°C. for 5 hours before being subject to an initial charge and dischargecycle. For instance, the sealed battery cell 200 can be first charged to4.2V at a C/20 rate for 5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5hours before the battery cell 200 is rested for 20 minutes. The restedbattery cell 200 can subsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate.In addition, the battery cell 200 can be punctured, while under vacuum,to release any gases before the battery cell 200 is resealed. At thispoint, the battery cell 200 is ready for operation and/or evaluation.

FIG. 7 depicts a flowchart illustrating a process 700 for manufacturinga battery cell consistent with implementations of the current subjectmatter. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 7, the process 700 can be performed tomanufacture a battery cell such as, for example, the battery cell 300.

At 702, a solid state electrolyte layer can be formed. For example, thesolid state electrolyte layer 310 of the battery cell 300 can be formed,for example, by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition. In someimplementations of the subject matter, forming the solid stateelectrolyte layer 310 can include dissolving, using a high speed mixer,5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 1,000,000 molecular weight intoapproximately 100 grams of deionized water, thereby forming apolyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram of lithiumnitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueous solutionfollowed by 20 grams of Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ (LLZO). The resulting slurry can becoated onto the base film layer 330. The base film layer 330 can be aseparator such as, for example, Celgard® 2300 and/or the like. Here, anautomatic coating machine can be used to deposit an approximately 20microns thick coating of the slurry onto the separator at 0.1 meter perminute. The coating of slurry can further be dried using the automaticcoating machine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a secondheating zone set to 80° C.

At 704, a first polymer electrolyte layer can be formed. For example,the first polymer electrolyte layer 320A of the battery cell 300 can beformed. In some implementations of the current subject matter, formingthe first polymer electrolyte layer 320 can include dissolving, using ahigh speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, therebyforming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram oflithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueoussolution. The solution can be coated onto the solid state electrolytelayer 310 formed at operation 702. For instance, the coating can beperformed using an automatic coating machine at 0.1 meter per minute.This coating of slurry can further be dried using the automatic coatingmachine with a first heating zone set to 60° C. and a second heatingzone set to 80° C. It should be appreciated that the resulting firstpolymer electrolyte layer 320A will interface directly with the negativefirst electrode 350A (e.g., anode) of the battery cell 300.

At 706, a resistive layer can be formed on top of a base film layer. Forexample, the resistive layer 340 can be formed on top of the base filmlayer 330. In some implementations of the current subject matter,forming the resistive layer 340 can include dissolving 10 grams ofpolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) LBG-1 into 100 grams of acetone and 20grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP). Furthermore, 0.5 grams of carbonblack can be added to the mixture and mixed for 15 minutes at 6500revolutions per minute. A flowable slurry can be formed by adding 1grams of a lithium salt (e.g., lithium imide) and mixing for 30 minutesat 6500 revolutions per minute. Additional N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) maybe added to adjust the viscosity of the flowable slurry. This resultingslurry can be coated, using an automatic coating machine, onto one sideof the base film layer 330 (e.g., Celgard® 2300) with the solid stateelectrolyte layer 310 being disposed on the opposite side of the basefilm layer 330. The automatic coating machine can further be used to drythis coating of slurry with a first heat zone set to approximately 60°C. and a second heat zone set to approximately 80° C. It should beappreciated that the slurry is subjected to heat in order to evaporateoff the acetone and the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in the slurry. Thefinal dried resistive layer 340 can have a loading of approximately 2milligrams per square centimeter.

At 708, a second polymer electrolyte layer can be formed on top of theresistive layer. For example, the second polymer electrolyte layer 320Bof the battery cell 300 can be formed on top of the resistive layer 340.In some implementations of the current subject matter, forming thesecond polymer electrolyte layer 320B can include dissolving, using ahigh speed mixer, 5 grams of polyethylene oxide (PEO) with 500,000molecular weight into approximately 50 grams of deionized water, therebyforming a polyethylene oxide aqueous solution. Furthermore, 1 gram oflithium nitrate can be mixed into the polyethylene oxide aqueoussolution. The solution can be coated onto one side of the resistivelayer 340 formed at operation 706, opposite from the base film layer330. For instance, the coating can be performed using an automaticcoating machine at 0.1 meter per minute. This coating of slurry canfurther be dried using the automatic coating machine with a firstheating zone set to 60° C. and a second heating zone set to 80° C. Itshould be appreciated that the resulting second polymer electrolytelayer 320B will interface directly with the positive second electrode350B (e.g., cathode) of the battery cell 300.

At 710, a positive electrode can be formed. For example, the secondelectrode 350B of the battery cell 300 can be formed. In someimplementations of the current subject matter, forming the secondelectrode 250B can include dissolving 10.5 grams of polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) into 120 grams of N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP).Furthermore, 9 grams of carbon black can be added to the mixture andmixed for 15 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute (rpm). A flowableslurry can subsequently be formed by adding 280 grams ofLiNi_(0.5)Mn_(0.3)Co_(0.2)O₂ (NMC) (280 g) to the mixture and mixing for30 minutes at 6500 revolutions per minute. AdditionalN-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) can be added to adjust the viscosity of theslurry. The resulting slurry can be coated onto a 15 micron thick layerof aluminum foil using an automatic coating machine. This coating ofslurry can further be dried using the automatic coating machine with afirst heat zone set to approximately 80° C. and a second heat zone setto approximately 130° C. It should be appreciated that subjecting theslurry to heat can evaporate the N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) in theslurry. The final dried second electrode 350B can have a loading ofapproximately 15.55 milligrams per square centimeter (mg/cm²). Thesecond electrode 350B can further be compressed to a thickness ofapproximately 117 microns.

At 712, a battery cell can be prepared. For example, the battery cell300 can be formed. In some implementations of the current subjectmatter, forming the battery cell 300 can include using an electrode tabto punch out the pieces forming the first electrode 350A and/or thesecond electrode 350B. The second electrode 350B (e.g., positiveelectrode) can be dried at 125° C. for 10 hours. Furthermore, the firstelectrode 350A and the second electrode 350B can be laminated, in a dryroom, with the solid state electrolyte layer 310 interposed between thefirst electrode 350A, the first polymer electrolyte layer 320A, the basefilm layer 330, the resistive layer 340, the second polymer electrolytelayer 320B, and the second electrode 350B. It should be appreciated thatin the resulting jelly-flat, the first polymer electrolyte layer 320Awill directly interface with the first electrode 350A while the secondpolymer electrolyte layer 320B will interface directly with the secondelectrode 350B. Meanwhile, the base film layer 330 is interposed betweenthe solid state electrolyte layer 310 and the resistive layer 340. Thisjelly-flat can be inserted into an aluminum (Al) composite bag, which issubsequently filled with a limited quantity of a liquid electrolyte suchas, for example, a LiPF₆ based organic carbonate electrolyte. Thealuminum composite bag can be sealed at 190° C. to form the battery cell300. The battery cell 300 can be aged at 45° C. for 5 hours before beingsubject to an initial charge and discharge cycle. For instance, thesealed battery cell 300 can be first charged to 4.2V at a C/20 rate for5 hours and then to 4.2V at 0.2 C rate for 5 hours before the batterycell 300 is rested for 20 minutes. The rested battery cell 300 cansubsequently be discharged to 2.8V at 0.2 C rate. In addition, thebattery cell 300 can be punctured, while under vacuum, to release anygases before the battery cell 300 is resealed. At this point, thebattery cell 300 is ready for operation and/or evaluation.

Implementations of the current subject matter can include, but are notlimited to, articles of manufacture (e.g. apparatuses, systems, etc.),methods of making or use, compositions of matter, or the like consistentwith the descriptions provided herein.

In the descriptions above and in the claims, phrases such as “at leastone of” or “one or more of” may occur followed by a conjunctive list ofelements or features. The term “and/or” may also occur in a list of twoor more elements or features. Unless otherwise implicitly or explicitlycontradicted by the context in which it used, such a phrase is intendedto mean any of the listed elements or features individually or any ofthe recited elements or features in combination with any of the otherrecited elements or features. For example, the phrases “at least one ofA and B;” “one or more of A and B;” and “A and/or B” are each intendedto mean “A alone, B alone, or A and B together.” A similarinterpretation is also intended for lists including three or more items.For example, the phrases “at least one of A, B, and C;” “one or more ofA, B, and C;” and “A, B, and/or C” are each intended to mean “A alone, Balone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, orA and B and C together.” Use of the term “based on,” above and in theclaims is intended to mean, “based at least in part on,” such that anunrecited feature or element is also permissible.

The subject matter described herein can be embodied in systems,apparatus, methods, and/or articles depending on the desiredconfiguration. The implementations set forth in the foregoingdescription do not represent all implementations consistent with thesubject matter described herein. Instead, they are merely some examplesconsistent with aspects related to the described subject matter.Although a few variations have been described in detail above, othermodifications or additions are possible. In particular, further featuresand/or variations can be provided in addition to those set forth herein.For example, the implementations described above can be directed tovarious combinations and subcombinations of the disclosed featuresand/or combinations and subcombinations of several further featuresdisclosed above. In addition, the processes depicted in the accompanyingfigures and/or described herein do not necessarily require theoperations to be performed in the order shown, or in any sequentialorder, in order to achieve desirable results. For example, one or moreoperations from these processes may be repeated and/or omitted. Otherimplementations may be within the scope of the following claim.

What is claimed is:
 1. A battery cell, comprising: a first electrode; asecond electrode; a solid state electrolyte layer interposed between thefirst electrode and the second electrode; and a resistive layerinterposed between the first electrode and the second electrode, theresistive layer further being electrically conductive to regulate aninternal current flow within the battery cell, the internal current flowresulting from an internal short circuit formed between the firstelectrode and the second electrode, and the internal short circuit beingformed from the solid state electrolyte layer being penetrated by metaldendrites formed at the first electrode and/or the second electrode. 2.The battery cell of claim 1, wherein the resistive layer is furtherionically conductive to enable a transfer of ions between the firstelectrode and the second electrode.
 3. The battery cell of claim 1,wherein the resistive layer comprises one or more electricallyconductive materials.
 4. The battery cell of claim 3, wherein the one ormore electrically conductive materials include carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphene, conductive polymers, and/or conductive inorganiccompounds.
 5. The battery cell of claim 3, wherein an amperage of theinternal current flow is proportional to a quantity of the one or moreelectrically conductive material.
 6. The battery cell of claim 1,wherein the resistive layer comprises one or more ionically conductivematerials.
 7. The battery cell of claim 6, wherein the one or moreionically conductive materials include a polymer electrolyte, a polymergel electrolyte, and/or a solid state electrolyte.
 8. The battery cellof claim 6, wherein a power of the battery cell is directly proportionalto a quantity of the one or more ionically conductive material.
 9. Thebattery cell of claim 1, wherein the resistive layer comprises one ormore polymer binders.
 10. The battery cell of claim 9, wherein the oneor more polymer binders include a polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), astyrene-butadiene (SBR), a carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a polyimide, apolyamide, and/or a polyethylene.
 11. The battery cell of claim 1,wherein the resistive layer comprises one or more nano-particle fillers.12. The battery cell of claim 11, wherein the one or more nano-particlefillers include a calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), a silicon titanium oxide(SiTiO₃), an aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), and/or a fumed silica.
 13. Thebattery cell of claim 1, wherein the resistive layer comprises one ormore electrochemically active compounds.
 14. The battery cell of claim13, wherein the one or more electrochemically active compounds includelithium nickel cobalt (NCM), lithium iron fluorine oxide (LiFeFO₂), ironfluoride (FeF_(x)/C), and/or lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide(NMC).
 15. The battery cell of claim 1, wherein the resistive layer isinterposed between the solid state electrolyte layer and one of thefirst electrode and the second electrode.
 16. The battery cell of claim1, further comprising a first polymer electrolyte layer, the firstpolymer electrolyte layer interposed between the first electrode and thesolid state electrolyte layer, the first polymer electrolyte layer beingconfigured to reduce a contact impedance between the first electrode andthe solid state electrolyte layer.
 17. The battery cell of 16, furthercomprising a second polymer electrolyte layer, the second polymerelectrolyte layer being interposed between the resistive layer and thesecond electrode.
 18. The battery cell of claim 16, further comprising abase film layer, the solid state electrolyte layer being interposedbetween the first polymer electrolyte layer and the base film layer, thefirst polymer electrolyte layer and the base film layer being configuredto prevent a decomposition of the solid state electrolyte layer during aproduction and/or an operation of the battery cell.
 19. The battery cellof claim 1, wherein the battery cell comprises a metal battery.
 20. Thebattery cell of claim 19, wherein the metal battery comprises a lithium(Li) battery, a sodium (Na) battery, and/or a potassium (K) battery. 21.The battery cell of claim 19, wherein the solid state electrolyte layeris formed by vapor deposition and/or plasma deposition.